French Revolution and Napoleonic Era: A Comprehensive Guide 1. Why the French are Revolting (10-7-Why-the-French-are-Revolting-1.pptx) This presentation explores the roots and outbreak of the French Revolution, emphasizing both the underlying conditions and immediate triggers. Revolutionary Preconditions: The slide opens by noting that revolutions require not a majority of support, but a lack of majority opposition. It distinguishes between moderate and radical phases, and highlights the role of ideology (Enlightenment, natural rights) and dire socio-economic conditions. Economic Crisis: France was deeply in debt from wars and extravagant royal spending. The tax burden fell almost entirely on the Third Estate (commoners), while the First (clergy) and Second (nobility) Estates enjoyed privileges and exemptions. Social Structure: The rigid Three Estates system is described, with the Third Estate making up 97% of the population but having little political power. This group ranged from poor peasants to wealthy bourgeoisie, all frustrated by their lack of influence. Weak Monarchy: Louis XVI is depicted as an indecisive and unpopular king, unable to address the country’s crises or command respect. Immediate Triggers: The economic depression after the American Revolution, food shortages, and the king’s need to raise taxes led to the calling of the Estates General in 1789. Each estate brought lists of grievances (cahiers de doléances). Revolution Begins: The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, swore the Tennis Court Oath to draft a constitution, and inspired mass action. The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, marked the revolution’s violent start. Popular Uprising: Peasants participated in the “Great Fear,” attacking nobles and destroying feudal records. The National Assembly responded by abolishing feudal rights and issuing the Declaration of the Rights of Man, proclaiming liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty. Early Reforms: The Assembly nationalized church property, rationalized the state, and established a constitutional monarchy. However, the revolution’s progress was uneven and contested. International Reaction: Nobles fled as émigrés, spreading alarm among European elites, while reformers and radicals elsewhere cheered the revolution’s ideals. Escalation: The king’s attempted flight and the Declaration of Pillnitz by Austria and Prussia heightened tensions, pushing the revolution toward greater radicalism. By 1791, a new constitution was adopted, but divisions between monarchists, moderates, and Jacobins set the stage for further conflict. 2. Why the French are Still Revolting (10-8-Why-the-French-are-Still-Revolting.pptx) This slideshow details the radicalization of the revolution, the emergence of mass violence, and the attempt to remake French society. War and Crisis: In 1792, France’s wars against Austria and Prussia led to military setbacks and fears of foreign invasion. The Prussians threatened Paris, and panic gripped the city. September Massacres: Radical journalist Jean Paul Marat incited violence against suspected enemies, leading to the September Massacres, where prisoners were killed by mobs. Marseillaise and Nationalism: Reinforcements from Marseilles helped repel the Prussians. Their marching song, “La Marseillaise,” became the national anthem and a symbol of revolutionary nationalism. Republic and Execution of the King: The monarchy was abolished, and Louis XVI was put on trial and executed by guillotine, symbolizing the revolution’s commitment to equality before the law. Multiple Crises: France faced foreign invasion, internal uprisings, economic instability, and a power vacuum after the king’s death. Committee of Public Safety: In 1793, the radical Committee led by Robespierre was given sweeping powers. The “levée en masse” mobilized the entire nation for war, introducing mass conscription and a planned economy with price controls and the “bread of equality.” Reign of Terror: The Committee launched the Reign of Terror to root out internal enemies, executing tens of thousands. Revolutionary culture was remade through a new calendar, metric system, and dechristianization campaigns. Thermidorian Reaction: By 1794, Robespierre’s extremism led to his downfall and execution. The Thermidorian Reaction restored property qualifications for voting, ended economic controls, and saw a backlash against Jacobins and sans-culottes (the “White Terror” and rise of the Muscadins). Legacy: Despite the violence, the radical phase resolved many crises and preserved the revolution, but at tremendous human cost. 3. Jews, Blacks, and Other Undesirables (10-9-Jews-Blacks-and-other-Undesirables.pptx) This presentation examines how the French and American revolutions affected Jews, Black people, and other marginalized groups, focusing on debates about citizenship, emancipation, and national identity. Jews in America: Jewish participation in the American Revolution is highlighted, noting their relative integration and the absence of systematic exclusion from military or civic life. Key documents like the US Constitution and Washington’s letter to the Newport synagogue are cited as affirming religious liberty. Jews in France: In contrast, French Jews faced centuries of exclusion and lived in distinct communities (Bordeaux, Alsace, Paris). The “Jewish Question”-how Jews could be integrated into modern society-became central during the Revolution. Debate on Emancipation: The Declaration of the Rights of Man promised religious freedom, but emancipation for Jews was gradual and contentious. Bordeaux’s acculturated Sephardic Jews were emancipated first (1791), followed by the more traditional Alsatian Jews in 1792, under the principle that “Jews must be denied everything as a nation, but granted everything as individuals.” Slavery and the Haitian Revolution: The Revolution’s ideals also affected Black people, especially in the colonies. Free Blacks and mixed-race people were granted rights in 1791, but a massive slave revolt in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) led by Toussaint Louverture resulted in emancipation and the creation of the first Black republic, sending shockwaves through the Atlantic world. Aftermath and Napoleon: Post-emancipation, French Jews experienced a range of responses-some embraced revolutionary ideals, others remained traditional. Napoleon, initially a liberator, later saw Jews as a challenge to national unity, convening an Assembly of Jewish Notables and creating the Consistory to regulate Jewish life. The “Infamous Decree” imposed restrictions, but emancipation was not reversed, even after the Bourbon Restoration. Broader Impact: The presentation concludes that the Revolution began the process of integrating Jews and other minorities as citizens, setting precedents for Europe. 4. Napoleon (10-12-Napoleon.pptx) This presentation traces Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise, rule, and fall, highlighting his impact on France and Europe. Rise from Obscurity: Napoleon, born in Corsica to minor nobility, benefited from the Revolution’s opening of military careers to talent rather than birth. He quickly rose through the ranks, becoming a general and war hero by 1796. Coup and Consulate: In 1799, the unpopular Directory was overthrown in a coup d’état, and Napoleon became First Consul, soon consolidating power. Reforms and Consolidation: Napoleon offered amnesty to émigrés, signed the Concordat with the Catholic Church, and created the Napoleonic Code, which modernized French law but reinforced patriarchal authority. His rule brought stability and national pride. Emperor and Controversy: In 1804, a plebiscite made Napoleon emperor. While many celebrated him as a bringer of glory, others saw him as a betrayer of revolutionary ideals. Beethoven’s disillusionment is cited as emblematic of this shift. Military Campaigns: Napoleon’s campaigns brought spectacular victories (Austerlitz) but also defeats (Trafalgar). Unable to defeat Britain militarily, he imposed the Continental System, an economic embargo. Despotism and Decline: Napoleon became increasingly autocratic, creating a new nobility and imprisoning critics. His imposition of family members as rulers abroad and the disastrous Peninsular War in Spain eroded his support. Russian Campaign and Downfall: The 1812 invasion of Russia ended in catastrophe. As his army retreated, European powers united against him. By 1814, Napoleon was forced to abdicate and exiled to Elba. The Hundred Days and Waterloo: Napoleon escaped Elba in 1815, briefly regained power, but was decisively defeated at Waterloo. He was exiled to St. Helena, where he died in 1821. Legacy: Napoleon’s rule left a complex legacy of legal reform, nationalism, and the spread of revolutionary ideals, but also war, authoritarianism, and reaction. Detailed Explanations of Terms Pre-Revolutionary France Bourbon Dynasty: A branch of the Capetian dynasty that ruled France from 1589 until 1792, and again from 1814 to 1848 (with interruptions)1015. The name derives from the castle of Bourbon l'Archambault21. Under their rule, France became a major European power, though financial mismanagement contributed to the Revolution. Louis XVI: King of France from 1774 to 1792, the last Bourbon monarch before the Revolution8. His inability to resolve France's financial crisis, combined with his perceived weakness as a ruler, contributed to the Revolution. He attempted to flee France in 1791 but was captured at Varennes9. He was executed by guillotine on January 21, 179314. France's Crises: By 1788, France faced multiple crises that precipitated the Revolution: Severe financial problems exacerbated by involvement in the American Revolution6 Social inequality with the privileged classes (clergy and nobility) controlling wealth while paying no taxes Food shortages leading to widespread hunger Economic depression following the American Revolution Assembly of Notables: Convened by Louis XVI in 1787 to address the financial crisis, this group of nobles and prominent citizens refused to support tax reforms that would have affected their privileges618. Their resistance forced the king to summon the Estates General. Early Revolution (1789) Estates General: France's representative assembly, divided into three estates: clergy (First Estate), nobility (Second Estate), and commoners (Third Estate)11. It was summoned by Louis XVI in May 1789 after a 175-year hiatus to address the financial crisis11. Immediately upon convening, they became deadlocked over voting procedures. Cahiers de Doleances: Lists of grievances prepared by each of the three estates during the election process for the Estates General9. These petitions documented the problems and concerns of different segments of French society and provided a blueprint for reform. National Assembly: Formed on June 17, 1789, when representatives of the Third Estate broke away from the Estates General and declared themselves the true representatives of the French people914. This act directly challenged royal authority and marked the beginning of the Revolution. Tennis Court Oath: On June 20, 1789, members of the National Assembly found themselves locked out of their regular meeting hall and gathered at a nearby indoor tennis court12. There they swore not to separate until they had given France a constitution, a pivotal moment that consolidated their defiance of royal authority. Bastille: A medieval fortress and prison in Paris that was stormed by revolutionaries on July 14, 1789714. Though it held only seven prisoners at the time, it symbolized royal despotism. The fall of the Bastille is celebrated as the start of the French Revolution and is commemorated as France's national holiday. Marquis de Lafayette: A French aristocrat who fought in the American Revolution and returned to France as a hero. After the storming of the Bastille, he was appointed commander of the National Guard, a citizens' militia formed to maintain order and protect the Revolution. The Great Fear: A period in July-August 1789 when rumors of aristocratic plots spread throughout the countryside, causing peasants to attack manors and monasteries and destroy feudal records79. This widespread panic led the National Assembly to abolish feudal privileges on August 4, 1789. Declaration of the Rights of Man: Adopted by the National Assembly on August 26, 1789, this document proclaimed the basic rights of all men, including liberty, equality before the law, security of property, and resistance to oppression79. It was heavily influenced by Enlightenment philosophy and the American Declaration of Independence. liberte, egalite, fraternite: The famous slogan of the French Revolution, meaning "liberty, equality, fraternity"1. These three principles embodied the ideals that revolutionaries were fighting for and remain central to French political identity today. All Authority rests with the Nation: A fundamental principle stated in Article 3 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man: "The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation"1. This idea shifted political legitimacy from the divine right of kings to the will of the people. Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792) Nationalization: During this period, Church lands were seized and sold to resolve the financial crisis1. This was part of broader efforts to rationalize the French state, including standardizing weights and measures and reorganizing administrative divisions. emigres: Nobles and clergy who fled France during the Revolution, often to neighboring countries17. They spread horror stories about revolutionary violence and urged foreign powers to intervene in France. Their flight complicated matters as they often left behind large debts and abandoned properties. Jacobins: Initially a political club that met in a former Dominican (Jacobin) convent, they became the most radical faction during the Revolution1. Republicans who opposed the monarchy, they eventually led the most extreme phase of the Revolution during the Reign of Terror. Declaration of Pillnitz: Issued on August 27, 1791, by Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia1318. It declared their support for Louis XVI and implied they might intervene in France if other European powers joined them. Revolutionary leaders interpreted this as a threat, fueling their paranoia about foreign intervention. Fall of the Monarchy and Radical Republic (1792-1794) Jean Paul Marat: A radical journalist who published "L'Ami du People" (The Friend of the People)18. He advocated violence against counter-revolutionaries and was assassinated in his bathtub by Charlotte Corday in 1793. His death was immortalized in Jacques-Louis David's famous painting. September Massacres: A wave of killings in Paris prisons between September 2-6, 17929. Fearful that foreign armies were approaching Paris, mobs murdered prisoners suspected of being counter-revolutionaries. These killings were partially incited by Marat's inflammatory rhetoric. Marseillaise: Originally a war song composed by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle for the Army of the Rhine16. It was brought to Paris by volunteers from Marseilles in 1792 and became the French national anthem. Its stirring lyrics call citizens to arms against tyranny. universal manhood suffrage: After victories against invading forces in 1792, France briefly adopted voting rights for all men regardless of property ownership1. This radical expansion of the electorate was later restricted during the Thermidorian Reaction. sans-culottes: Literally "without knee breeches," this term referred to the working-class revolutionaries who wore long trousers rather than the knee breeches of aristocrats7. They were a powerful political force in Paris, often pressuring the government through mass demonstrations and direct action. guillotine: An execution device designed by Dr. Joseph-Ignace Guillotin to provide a quick, painless death14. It became the primary method of execution during the Revolution and was seen as egalitarian because it was used on all social classes2. Despite its humanitarian intent, it became synonymous with the Terror. Committee of Public Safety: Established in April 1793, this committee functioned as France's de facto executive government during the most radical phase of the Revolution914. Led by Maximilien Robespierre, it orchestrated the Reign of Terror in the name of protecting the Revolution. Levee en masse: A decree issued on August 23, 1793, that mobilized all citizens for the war effort9. Men were conscripted into the army, while women made supplies, children collected lint for bandages, and the elderly encouraged patriotism. It represented the first modern mass conscription and helped France field armies of unprecedented size. Total War: The concept that the entire nation and all its resources should be devoted to the war effort2. The levee en masse introduced this concept, transforming military conflicts from limited wars fought by professional armies to national struggles involving entire populations. planned economy: During the radical phase of the Revolution, the government attempted to control production and established price controls on essential goods2. These measures were part of the emergency economic policies adopted during the Terror. "bread of equality": A decree that all bread should be made from mixed flour types, so rich and poor would eat the same quality bread2. This symbolic measure aimed to enforce revolutionary principles of equality in daily life. Reign of Terror: From September 1793 to July 1794, a period of political violence led by Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety14. Approximately 16,000 people were officially executed (with many more dying in prison or without trial) as "enemies of the revolution"8. It ended with Robespierre's execution. Dechristianization: A campaign to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church, including the creation of a new calendar, the closure of churches, and the promotion of reason as a replacement for religion2. This campaign led to significant resistance, especially in rural areas. vandalism: The term originated during this period to describe the destruction of churches and religious artifacts during the dechristianization campaign2. It has since entered common usage to describe any wanton destruction of property. Thermidorian Reaction: After Robespierre's execution in July 1794 (the month of Thermidor in the revolutionary calendar), a conservative backlash restored property qualifications for voting and ended the Reign of Terror14. It marked a shift away from radical revolutionary principles toward more moderate governance. muscadins: Young men who opposed the sans-culottes after the fall of Robespierre2. They dressed fashionably and sometimes violently confronted supporters of the Terror in what became known as the "White Terror." Jews and Other Minorities in Revolutionary France "The Jewish Question": The debate about what place Jews should have in European society, which intensified during the Revolution3. Enlightenment thinkers and revolutionaries disagreed about whether Jews could be integrated into society while maintaining their distinct religious practices. Bordeaux: Home to a community of Sephardic Jews (former conversos) who were more assimilated and economically integrated into French society3. Due to their acculturation, they were emancipated earlier than other Jewish communities in France. Alsatian Jewry: The largest Jewish community in France, residing in the northeast3. They were more traditional, Yiddish-speaking, and faced greater resistance to their emancipation due to local prejudices and their distinct cultural practices. Emancipation: The removal of legal restrictions on Jews, allowing them full citizenship rights3. In France, this occurred gradually, with Sephardic Jews emancipated in January 1791 and all Jews in September 1792 when the new constitution was adopted. "Jews must be denied everything as a nation, but granted everything as individuals": A quote from Count Clermont-Tonnerre that expressed the Revolutionary approach to Jewish emancipation3. It meant Jews could have rights as individual citizens but not as a separate community with its own laws and customs. Consistory: An official body of French Jewry created by Napoleon in 1806 to organize Jewish religious life under state supervision3. It centralized Jewish religious administration and brought it under government control, similar to Napoleon's approach to other religions. Toussaint Louverture: Leader of the Haitian Revolution who led enslaved people in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) in their fight for freedom3. Initially supporting the constitutional monarchy, he eventually embraced republicanism and secured the abolition of slavery in the colony. His success caused panic among American slaveholders. The Napoleonic Era (1799-1815) Napoleon Bonaparte: Born in Corsica in 1769, he rose through military ranks during the Revolution821. After successful campaigns in Italy and Egypt, he seized power in 1799, eventually crowning himself Emperor in 1804. He dominated European politics until his final defeat in 1815. coup d'etat: On November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire), Napoleon overthrew the Directory with military support, establishing the Consulate with himself as First Consul816. This bloodless coup effectively ended the revolutionary period and began the Napoleonic era. First Consul: Napoleon's title after the coup of 17995. Though technically one of three consuls, he held the most power and used this position to consolidate his authority and implement major reforms. amnesty: Napoleon offered forgiveness to émigrés who returned to France5. This measure helped stabilize the country after years of revolution by reconciling many former opponents of the Revolutionary government. Concordat: An agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII in 1801 that reestablished the Catholic Church in France while keeping it under state control5. Priests received government salaries, and the Pope could depose bishops nominated by the French government. This reconciled many Catholics to the post-revolutionary regime. Napoleonic Code: A comprehensive legal code established in 1804 that maintained revolutionary principles like equality before the law while restoring patriarchal authority in families58. It influenced legal systems around the world and remains the basis of civil law in many countries today. plebiscite: A direct vote by the people on a specific issue. Napoleon used a plebiscite in 1804 to gain approval for becoming Emperor5. This gave him the appearance of popular legitimacy while establishing an authoritarian regime. Austerlitz: Napoleon's greatest victory, achieved on December 2, 1805, against combined Austrian and Russian forces5. Known as the "Battle of the Three Emperors," it established his dominance in continental Europe and led to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. Trafalgar: A naval battle on October 21, 1805, where the British fleet under Admiral Nelson defeated the combined French and Spanish fleets520. Although Nelson was killed, his victory established British naval supremacy and ended Napoleon's hopes of invading England. HRE: The Holy Roman Empire, a complex of Central European territories nominally united under an emperor5. Napoleon's victories against Austria led to its dissolution in 1806, ending an institution that had existed for over 800 years. Confederation of the Rhine: A collection of German states organized by Napoleon in 1806 after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire5. They were essentially French client states and provided troops for Napoleon's campaigns. Continental System: Napoleon's policy to weaken Britain economically by blocking it from trade with continental Europe5. Established after the Battle of Trafalgar, it proved difficult to enforce and damaged continental economies as much as Britain's. The End of the Napoleonic Era (1814-1821) Louis XVIII: Brother of Louis XVI who became king after Napoleon's first abdication in 18141017. He tried to restore the monarchy while accepting some changes from the revolutionary period, including maintaining the emancipation of Jews. 100 Days: The period from Napoleon's return from exile on Elba in March 1815 until his final defeat at Waterloo in June514. During this time, he briefly retook power in France as soldiers sent to arrest him instead joined his cause. Waterloo: The final defeat of Napoleon on June 18, 1815, by British forces under the Duke of Wellington and Prussian forces under Blücher516. This decisive battle ended Napoleon's rule and led to his permanent exile. St. Helena: A remote island in the South Atlantic where Napoleon was exiled after Waterloo5. He remained there until his death in 1821, dictating his memoirs and crafting his legacy as a champion of revolutionary ideals. Timeline of Major Events Pre-1789: Build-up to the Revolution 1787: Assembly of Notables refuses to support tax reforms May 5, 1789: Estates General convenes at Versailles 1789: The Revolution Begins June 17, 1789: Third Estate declares itself the National Assembly June 20, 1789: Tennis Court Oath July 14, 1789: Storming of the Bastille July-August 1789: The Great Fear sweeps rural France August 4, 1789: Abolition of feudal privileges August 26, 1789: Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen October 5-6, 1789: Women's March on Versailles; royal family forced to return to Paris 1790-1791: Constitutional Monarchy July 12, 1790: Civil Constitution of the Clergy January 1791: Emancipation of Sephardic Jews of Bordeaux June 20-21, 1791: Failed flight of Louis XVI to Varennes August 27, 1791: Declaration of Pillnitz by Austria and Prussia September 1791: Constitution adopted establishing constitutional monarchy 1792: Fall of the Monarchy April 20, 1792: France declares war on Austria September 1792: September Massacres September 20, 1792: French victory at Valmy September 21, 1792: Monarchy abolished, First Republic established September 1792: Emancipation of all Jews in France 1793: Radicalization and Terror January 21, 1793: Execution of Louis XVI February 1793: France declares war on Britain and Netherlands April 6, 1793: Committee of Public Safety established August 23, 1793: Levee en masse decreed September 1793: Reign of Terror begins October 16, 1793: Marie Antoinette executed 1794: End of the Terror July 27, 1794: Robespierre overthrown July 28, 1794: Robespierre executed, ending the Reign of Terror July-August 1794: Thermidorian Reaction begins 1795-1799: Directory Period 1795: Directory takes power 1796-1797: Napoleon's successful Italian campaign 1798: Napoleon's Egyptian campaign November 9, 1799: Coup of 18 Brumaire; Napoleon becomes First Consul 1800-1804: Consulate Period 1801: Concordat with the Catholic Church 1804: Napoleonic Code established 1804: Napoleon crowned Emperor after plebiscite 1805-1814: Napoleonic Empire October 21, 1805: British naval victory at Trafalgar December 2, 1805: Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz 1806: Dissolution of Holy Roman Empire, formation of Confederation of the Rhine 1806: Continental System established 1806: Assembly of Jewish Notables convened by Napoleon 1808-1814: Peninsular War in Spain 1812: Napoleon's disastrous Russian campaign 1814: Allies capture Paris, Napoleon abdicates, Louis XVIII restored 1815: The Hundred Days and Final Defeat March 1815: Napoleon escapes from Elba and returns to France March-June 1815: The Hundred Days June 18, 1815: Napoleon defeated at Waterloo October 1815: Napoleon exiled to St. Helena 1821: Napoleon's Death May 5, 1821: Napoleon dies on St. Helena