French Revolution and Napoleonic Era: A Comprehensive Guide 1. Why the French are Revolting (10-7-Why-the-French-are-Revolting-1.pptx) This presentation explores the roots and outbreak of the French Revolution, emphasizing both the underlying conditions and immediate triggers. Revolutionary Preconditions: The slide opens by noting that revolutions require not a majority of support, but a lack of majority opposition. It distinguishes between moderate and radical phases, and highlights the role of ideology (Enlightenment, natural rights) and dire socio-economic conditions. Economic Crisis: France was deeply in debt from wars and extravagant royal spending. The tax burden fell almost entirely on the Third Estate (commoners), while the First (clergy) and Second (nobility) Estates enjoyed privileges and exemptions. Social Structure: The rigid Three Estates system is described, with the Third Estate making up 97% of the population but having little political power. This group ranged from poor peasants to wealthy bourgeoisie, all frustrated by their lack of influence. Weak Monarchy: Louis XVI is depicted as an indecisive and unpopular king, unable to address the country’s crises or command respect. Immediate Triggers: The economic depression after the American Revolution, food shortages, and the king’s need to raise taxes led to the calling of the Estates General in 1789. Each estate brought lists of grievances (cahiers de doléances). Revolution Begins: The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, swore the Tennis Court Oath to draft a constitution, and inspired mass action. The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, marked the revolution’s violent start. Popular Uprising: Peasants participated in the “Great Fear,” attacking nobles and destroying feudal records. The National Assembly responded by abolishing feudal rights and issuing the Declaration of the Rights of Man, proclaiming liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty. Early Reforms: The Assembly nationalized church property, rationalized the state, and established a constitutional monarchy. However, the revolution’s progress was uneven and contested. International Reaction: Nobles fled as émigrés, spreading alarm among European elites, while reformers and radicals elsewhere cheered the revolution’s ideals. Escalation: The king’s attempted flight and the Declaration of Pillnitz by Austria and Prussia heightened tensions, pushing the revolution toward greater radicalism. By 1791, a new constitution was adopted, but divisions between monarchists, moderates, and Jacobins set the stage for further conflict. 2. Why the French are Still Revolting (10-8-Why-the-French-are-Still-Revolting.pptx) This slideshow details the radicalization of the revolution, the emergence of mass violence, and the attempt to remake French society. War and Crisis: In 1792, France’s wars against Austria and Prussia led to military setbacks and fears of foreign invasion. The Prussians threatened Paris, and panic gripped the city. September Massacres: Radical journalist Jean Paul Marat incited violence against suspected enemies, leading to the September Massacres, where prisoners were killed by mobs. Marseillaise and Nationalism: Reinforcements from Marseilles helped repel the Prussians. Their marching song, “La Marseillaise,” became the national anthem and a symbol of revolutionary nationalism. Republic and Execution of the King: The monarchy was abolished, and Louis XVI was put on trial and executed by guillotine, symbolizing the revolution’s commitment to equality before the law. Multiple Crises: France faced foreign invasion, internal uprisings, economic instability, and a power vacuum after the king’s death. Committee of Public Safety: In 1793, the radical Committee led by Robespierre was given sweeping powers. The “levée en masse” mobilized the entire nation for war, introducing mass conscription and a planned economy with price controls and the “bread of equality.” Reign of Terror: The Committee launched the Reign of Terror to root out internal enemies, executing tens of thousands. Revolutionary culture was remade through a new calendar, metric system, and dechristianization campaigns. Thermidorian Reaction: By 1794, Robespierre’s extremism led to his downfall and execution. The Thermidorian Reaction restored property qualifications for voting, ended economic controls, and saw a backlash against Jacobins and sans-culottes (the “White Terror” and rise of the Muscadins). Legacy: Despite the violence, the radical phase resolved many crises and preserved the revolution, but at tremendous human cost. 3. Jews, Blacks, and Other Undesirables (10-9-Jews-Blacks-and-other-Undesirables.pptx) This presentation examines how the French and American revolutions affected Jews, Black people, and other marginalized groups, focusing on debates about citizenship, emancipation, and national identity. Jews in America: Jewish participation in the American Revolution is highlighted, noting their relative integration and the absence of systematic exclusion from military or civic life. Key documents like the US Constitution and Washington’s letter to the Newport synagogue are cited as affirming religious liberty. Jews in France: In contrast, French Jews faced centuries of exclusion and lived in distinct communities (Bordeaux, Alsace, Paris). The “Jewish Question”-how Jews could be integrated into modern society-became central during the Revolution. Debate on Emancipation: The Declaration of the Rights of Man promised religious freedom, but emancipation for Jews was gradual and contentious. Bordeaux’s acculturated Sephardic Jews were emancipated first (1791), followed by the more traditional Alsatian Jews in 1792, under the principle that “Jews must be denied everything as a nation, but granted everything as individuals.” Slavery and the Haitian Revolution: The Revolution’s ideals also affected Black people, especially in the colonies. Free Blacks and mixed-race people were granted rights in 1791, but a massive slave revolt in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) led by Toussaint Louverture resulted in emancipation and the creation of the first Black republic, sending shockwaves through the Atlantic world. Aftermath and Napoleon: Post-emancipation, French Jews experienced a range of responses-some embraced revolutionary ideals, others remained traditional. Napoleon, initially a liberator, later saw Jews as a challenge to national unity, convening an Assembly of Jewish Notables and creating the Consistory to regulate Jewish life. The “Infamous Decree” imposed restrictions, but emancipation was not reversed, even after the Bourbon Restoration. Broader Impact: The presentation concludes that the Revolution began the process of integrating Jews and other minorities as citizens, setting precedents for Europe. 4. Napoleon (10-12-Napoleon.pptx) This presentation traces Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise, rule, and fall, highlighting his impact on France and Europe. Rise from Obscurity: Napoleon, born in Corsica to minor nobility, benefited from the Revolution’s opening of military careers to talent rather than birth. He quickly rose through the ranks, becoming a general and war hero by 1796. Coup and Consulate: In 1799, the unpopular Directory was overthrown in a coup d’état, and Napoleon became First Consul, soon consolidating power. Reforms and Consolidation: Napoleon offered amnesty to émigrés, signed the Concordat with the Catholic Church, and created the Napoleonic Code, which modernized French law but reinforced patriarchal authority. His rule brought stability and national pride. Emperor and Controversy: In 1804, a plebiscite made Napoleon emperor. While many celebrated him as a bringer of glory, others saw him as a betrayer of revolutionary ideals. Beethoven’s disillusionment is cited as emblematic of this shift. Military Campaigns: Napoleon’s campaigns brought spectacular victories (Austerlitz) but also defeats (Trafalgar). Unable to defeat Britain militarily, he imposed the Continental System, an economic embargo. Despotism and Decline: Napoleon became increasingly autocratic, creating a new nobility and imprisoning critics. His imposition of family members as rulers abroad and the disastrous Peninsular War in Spain eroded his support. Russian Campaign and Downfall: The 1812 invasion of Russia ended in catastrophe. As his army retreated, European powers united against him. By 1814, Napoleon was forced to abdicate and exiled to Elba. The Hundred Days and Waterloo: Napoleon escaped Elba in 1815, briefly regained power, but was decisively defeated at Waterloo. He was exiled to St. Helena, where he died in 1821. Legacy: Napoleon’s rule left a complex legacy of legal reform, nationalism, and the spread of revolutionary ideals, but also war, authoritarianism, and reaction.