Topic 7: The judiciary. Origins of the US Judiciary: Built on English legal traditions • Trial by jury: *right to a trial by jury guaranteed under Constitution. • Appeals: *you can appeal to a higher court. • Precedents The Articles of Confederation did not mention judicial power or create a federal court system. States could ignore federal requests without fear of punishment. Article III of the US Constitution created the judicial branch: “The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish”. However, the US Constitution did not specify the structure and powers of federal courts. • Judiciary Act of 1789: signed into law by Pres. George Washington. Established the first federal court system, consisting of district courts (lowest level), circuit courts (intermediate level), and the US Supreme Court (highest level). Qualifications for the US Supreme Court: The US Constitution does not include any age, education, work experience, or citizenship requirements to be a Supreme Court justice. It does not even require a law degree. However, in theory, the president would not choose, and the Senate would not confirm, someone who is not highly qualified. Nomination of Federal Judges: The US president nominates federal judges, and the Senate confirms or rejects them. A simple majority vote is required for confirmation: if there is a tie, the vice president (president of the Senate) breaks it. Federal judges serve until they resign/die Federal Court Jurisdiction: Federal courts can only hear cases that relate to federal law. If state & federal laws overlap, state cases can be appealed to federal courts. District Courts District Courts: “Federal trial courts at the bottom of the federal judicial hierarchy”. Hear civil (disputes between citizens in different states) & criminal cases (individuals or groups violate federal law). There are 94 district courts in the US: each has at least one judge nominated by the president & confirmed by the Senate for a life term. Most civil suits are settled out of court. A plaintiff files a complaint to stop the defendant from causing harm or seeks monetary compensation for damages. Courts encourage the parties to try to avoid a trial by using mediation & coming to a settlement: of the cases that go to trial, 2/3 are decided by juries and 1/3 by judges. *A jury is a group of people who decide the facts of the case. A judge is a legal expert who ensures the trial is fair, rules on legal matters, and, in some cases, makes the final decision. In criminal cases, the accused has the right to a trial by jury or a bench trial (judge decides). Jury in a federal felony case consists of 12 individuals who must reach a verdict unanimously: innocent or guilty. Judge decides sentence. Defendant can appeal a guilty verdict to the Circuit Court/Court of Appeals. Circuit Courts/Court of Appeals: Circuit courts: “Intermediate federal courts that are above the district courts and below the Supreme Court”. They are the first level of appeal at the federal level: 13 circuit courts in the US. Each circuit court has multiple judges (ranging from 6 to 29) nominated by the president & confirmed by the Senate. Three-judge panels normally hear appeal cases. They review the legal accuracy of civil and criminal cases and make a decision. A losing party can appeal cases to the entire circuit for an en banc (“by the full court”) review, or appeal directly to the Supreme Court. Appeals to the Supreme Court: Supreme Court is the final level of appeal. Writ of Certiorari: “Request to the Supreme Court that it review a lower case”. The Supreme Court decides whether or not to hear the appeal If four justices agree to hear a case, it grants review (“Rule of Four”) • Issue a majority opinion: “Opinion of a court laying out the official position of the court in the case”. • Concurring opinions: Agree with majority opinion but have different reasoning. • Dissenting opinions: Argue a minority perspective against the majority opinion. US Supreme Court Justices: Appointment & Impeachment: Appointed for life: in theory, this shields justices from political pressure. Can only be removed via impeachment in the House (simple majority) and conviction in the Senate (2/3 majority). The only US Supreme Court justice to be impeached was Samuel Chase (1805), but he was acquitted by the Senate. Composition of the US Supreme Court: Since the Judiciary Act of 1869, there have been 9 judges on the US Supreme Court. John Roberts is the current Chief Justice of the Supreme Court: nominated by president, confirmed by senate. The eight Associate Justices are: Clarence Thomas, Amy Coney Barrett, Ketanji Brown Jackson, Samuel Alito, Sonia Sotomayor, Elena Kagan, Neil Gorsuch, and Brett Kavanaugh. • Conservative: Clarence Thomas (Bush Sr.), Brett Kavanaugh (Trump), Neil Gorsuch (Trump), Samuel Alito (Bush Jr.), John Roberts (Bush Jr.), Amy Coney Barrett (Trump). • Liberal: Sonia Sotomayor (Obama), Elena Kagan (Obama), Ketanji Brown Jackson (Biden). Supreme Court Jurisdiction: Highest federal court of the United States. Original jurisdiction: “The authority to hear a case directly from a petitioning party”. Hears disputes between states, disputes between the federal government & states, and cases involving foreign ambassadors/consuls. Ex. 303 Creative LLC v Elenis (2023): A graphic designer in Colorado could refuse to create websites for same-sex weddings if it conflicts with their religious beliefs (1st Amendment). Appellate jurisdiction. “The authority to hear cases on appeals from lower courts”. It is the final arbiter on legal issues. Can review cases that have significant constitutional questions; disputes over the application of federal laws; conflicts between federal and state laws; conflicting rulings in different courts. The Supreme Court makes decisions based on the Constitution & judicial precedents: "Practice of reaching decisions based on the previous decisions of judges”. Judicial Review: “Power of courts to declare actions of Congress, the president, or state officials unconstitutional and therefore void”. • Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established that the Supreme Court had the power of judicial review. • Fletcher v. Peck (1810): First time the Supreme Court declared a state law unconstitutional. The Supreme Court has tremendous power: unelected judiciary can void legislation passed by an elected Congress and president. Problem of Judicial Activism: “Decisions that go beyond what the law requires, made by judges who seek to impose their own policy preferences on society through their judicial decisions”. Critics say that judges should act with judicial restraint: “Judges should respect the decisions of other branches or the decisions of earlier judges and base their decisions on purely legal issues rather than on their own preferences”. Research shows that supreme court justices respect previous decisions when they are consistent with their ideology. Diversity in the US Supreme Court: From 1789-1836, all justices of the Supreme Court were white male protestants Historically, 92/116 justices have been protestants. • In 1836, Roger Taney became the first Catholic justice. • In 1916, Louis Brandeis became the first Jewish justice. • In 1967, Thurgood Marshall became the first African American justice • In 1981, Sandra Day O’Connor became the first female justice • In 2009, Sonia Sotomayor became the first Hispanic justice • In 2022, Ketanji Brown Jackson became the first female African-American justice • Still no male Latinos, Asians or Native Americans There have been six foreign-born Supreme Court justices: James Wilson (Scotland), James Iredell (England), William Patterson (Ireland), David Brewer (Turkey), George Sutherland (England), Felix Frankfurter (Austria). Of the 116 Supreme Court justices, 110 have been males: Sandra Day O’Connor, Ruth Ginsburg, Elena Kagan, Sonia Sotomayor, Amy Coney Barrett, and Ketanji Brown Jackson have been the only women. Today, there are 5 men & 4 women. 6 Catholic, 2 Protestant, 1 Jewish justice. All current Supreme Court justices attended Harvard or Yale law school except Amy Coney Barrett (Notre Dame). Topic 8: Political Parties. Political parties are the main body of representative democracy: “A system of government in which members of a community elect people to represent their interests & to make decisions affecting the community”. Five main roles of Political Parties: • Recruitment: find & prepare candidates for public office. • Mobilization: encouraging voters to participate in politics & support them. • Government: win elections, exercise power, and implement agenda. • Guidance: shaping voters’ policy positions. • Aggregation: make policy proposals based on voters’ demands. Political Parties: • Members follow a party platform: “Document that lays out a party’s core beliefs and policy proposals for each presidential election”. • Parties seek to mobilize the electorate to participate in the political process & support their party platform (campaigns, advertisements, rallies, and community outreach). • Political parties present their platform during presidential electoral campaigns. This includes elements such as national security, health care, education, the environment, and taxes. • There may be dissent within a party, but most politicians will follow their party platform. They do this to be re-elected; otherwise, voters could hold them accountable for gaps between their party platform and the policies they support. • Party membership defines and represents individual identities: “I am a Democrat” or “I am a Republican”—it is a sign of allegiance. • Individuals identify with political parties for different reasons—their policies represent their core beliefs or interests, their close relatives or social environment affiliates with a particular party… Many young people support the same party as their parents. • Political parties serve as a gateway to elected local, state, national public office (parties provide opportunities for people to enter politics). It is common for people in public office to affiliate with a political party in college & rise through the ranks after college. They can also serve as a gateway to international nominations (ambassadors, president of the World Bank, etc.) • The Republican/Democrat National Committee is the highest level of their political parties. It promotes the party’s platform & coordinates electoral fundraising for the presidential campaign. Its objective is to do everything possible to ensure that their presidential nominee is elected. • *The 2020 election cost about $14.4 billion, more than double 2016. • The Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee and the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee raise funds to support incumbent Democrat House and Senate members; The National Republican Congressional Committee and the National Republican Senatorial Committee do the same. • State political parties are regulated by the laws of each state. *This means rules about things like party registration, primaries, and campaign finance can vary from state to state. They have a state central committee that raises funds to support party figures in state & local elections. Primaries & Caucuses: *Different ways in which political parties choose their candidates for elections. *A primary is an election where voters choose a political party's candidate for a specific office, such as president or governor. In simple terms, a primary is like an internal election within a political party to pick its best candidate for the big race (general election). • Open primary: any registered voter may participate in any primary. • Closed primary: a voter must be registered with a political party before voting in their primary. • Semi-closed primary: participation is open to party affiliates & independents Caucus: a political party gathering in which party members deliberate & choose a candidate. • In the 2020 presidential election, 46 states used primaries & 4 used caucuses: Iowa, Nevada, North Dakota and Wyoming. Open & Closed Primaries: • Advantages of open primaries: anyone can vote; Disadvantages: one party could subvert another’s party’s election process. • Advantages of closed primaries: there is no possibility of subversion; Disadvantages: excludes non-party members (those affiliated with the opposing political party and independents). Primaries: • Primary debates & campaigns create competition within a political party. They encourage candidates to reveal negative aspects of each other’s professional/personal lives in order to win: this can weaken the party’s final nominee when they run in the presidential election. • Party organizations want their nominee to be the person most likely to win the presidential election. • Elite party members can set criteria that determines who takes place in primary television debates: must have a certain % in polls, must meet certain fundraising targets… Party elites can also endorse one candidate over another, and party organizations can seek to attract donations for their preferred candidates. Delegates: • A minimum of delegates is assigned to each state. Then, they receive more based on the population size. • The candidate from each party who wins a majority of the delegates from primaries & caucuses is selected at the national convention as the party’s nominee for president • Delegates are awarded according to state rules: some states grant them based on the state vote; others do a combination of the state vote and congressional districts. * Primaries decide which candidate gets the most delegates, and delegates then decide who becomes the nominee at the national convention. Political factions: In Federalist Papers 10 and 51, Madison predicted the rise of factions: “Groups of individuals who share a common political goal and ally with each other on a temporary basis to accomplish that goal”. He feared that factions could threaten the existence of America’s new democracy. • Federalists: a stable federal government could collect tax revenue, raise and maintain a military, regulate foreign and domestic trade & exercise monetary policy. • Anti-federalists: advocated for a loosely affiliated group of self-governing sovereign states that would manage their own commerce & tax policies & internal security. The US had just gained its independence from an oppressive monarchy; the anti-federalists feared that a strong central government would do the same as the British Crown. • Federalist Papers triumphed and the Constitution came into effect in 1789. George Washington (1789-97), an Independent, argued against factions & for moderation. However, his cabinet had people from opposing political sides: Alexander Hamilton (Federalist) was Secretary of the Treasury; Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican) was Secretary of State. Political parties: • The Federalist Party (1787) was led by Alexander Hamilton & fought for a strong central government: supported mainly by northern businessmen, merchants & bankers. Other important members: John Adams & John Jay. • The Democratic-Republican Party (1792)—was led by Thomas Jefferson & fought for protecting states’ rights: supported mostly by southern farmers. • In 1800, Thomas Jefferson won the presidential election & used his victory to strengthen the Democratic Republican Party. The Democratic Republicans occupied the White House from 1800-1829: Jefferson (1801-9), Madison (1809-17), Monroe (1817-25), Quincy Adams (1825-29). • Federalist Party collapsed after the War of 1812. • In 1828, the Democratic Republicans split into those who supported Andrew Jackson (Democrats) and those who despised him (Whigs). • The Whigs despised Jackson, accusing him of corruption (replacing well-established figures in government with loyal politicians) & expanding executive power: called him “King Andrew I”. • Democrats or Whigs were in power from 1829 until the Civil War. • The anti-slavery Whigs founded the Republicans to oppose the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which allowed Kansas & Nebraska to decide if they would allow slavery. • Since the Civil War, the two major political parties have been the Republicans & the Democrats. • Republicans were powerful in the north, were in favour of industry, & fought against the expansion of slavery; the Democrats were powerful in the south, protected agricultural interests, and were in favour of slavery. The “New Deal” & the Transformation of America’s Political Parties: The New Deal transformed the Democrats: during the Great Depression (1929-30), about a third of the American workforce was unemployed. FDR (Roosevelt) spread the idea that a strong federal government should help individuals in need (agricultural & factory workers, the poor, unemployed, disabled, retirees). From 1932 onward FDR built a very broad coalition including northerners, southerners, nationalized immigrants, African Americans (who formerly aligned with the Republicans). • Beginning of discussions in the United States on income redistribution, higher taxes on the wealthy, social benefits (healthcare, unemployment insurance, pensions, welfare payments to the poor). • Those who opposed the New Deal (Republicans) are considered modern conservatives—lower taxes on wealthy, roll back social provisions… • After 1932, the two parties switched places: democrats changed from a party that defended states’ rights, low taxes & little government intervention to the party that defended a strong federal social safety net; Republicans changed from a party that believed in a strong central federal government to the party of a limited federal government & low taxes & dismantling of the welfare state). • This produced a realignment of the electorate: “Long-term shift in voter allegiance from one party to another”. The “Great Society” & the Transformation of America’s Political Parties: In the 1960s, under JFK & LBJ, the Democrats became the party of civil rights for African Americans (Civil Rights Act of 1964; Voting Rights Act of 1965). LBJ build on FDR’s social provisions & enacted legislation to illegalize discrimination against African Americans. This resulted in a further shift of African Americans from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party. In 2020, 87% of African Americans supported Joe Biden and 61% of Latinos (foreign policy, immigration, religious issues…). Reaganism: • 1980s: rise of Reaganism—rebranded the Republicans: social conservatism & neoliberalism. • Less government, deregulation, privatization, lower taxes on the rich and large corporations, trickle-down economics, roll back of social programs, appeal evangelicals, challenged Roe v. Wade, advocated for prayer in public schools, struggled against Soviet communism. Republicans (Reagan & Bush Sr.) held the presidency for the next 12 years (1981-93) Clinton & the Third Way: • Bill Clinton (1993-2001) changed the Democratic Party platform in response to Reaganism. In 1994 the Republicans took control of both the House and the Senate for the first time since 1954. • Sought to appeal to a wider base of voters through The Third Way—socially progressive & economically neoliberal (deregulation, privatization, roll back social provisions, strong links to Wall Street). Political parties in the US today: • Republicans (deregulation, privatization of public services, low taxes on rich and large corporations, dismantlement of welfare state, large donors, anti-workers’ rights, social conservatism …) Divisions over free trade v. protectionism and foreign policy. • Democrats divided between progressives (free public university education; national healthcare) & moderate democrats (socially progressive but neoliberal—closely linked to Wall Street and large donors). • Biden’s budget: increase in pensions; tax hikes for wealthy and billion-dollar companies; increase corporate tax; lower medical costs. This is a result of the economic crisis of 2008 (*led to greater focus on inequality and corporate regulation), Occupy Wall Street (*raised awareness of wealth concentration and corporate power.), & pressure from progressive democrats. Median voter theorem (Anthony Downs): Theory that, in a two-party race, political parties will seek to be as close to the centre as possible in order to maximize votes. Politicians & interest groups on the extremes of the political spectrum challenge this theorem by pressuring parties & candidates to move away from the centre by taking on new policies. Third parties: Third parties pressure the two dominant parties to incorporate their proposals. • Ross Perot of the “United We Stand Party” forced George Bush Sr. (1989-93) and Bill Clinton (1993-2001) to address the federal deficit. • Bernie Sanders pressured Joe Biden to forgive a percentage of student loans (2020). Third Party Movements: • Tea Party (created 2009) pressured the Republican Party for lower taxes; vehemently opposed Affordable Care Act. Reaction to Obama presidency & social progressivism—anti-feminist, anti-LGBTQ+, anti-immigration… Influential in shaping president Trump’s party platform in 2016 & Republican policies since. Topic 9: Elections and political participation Electoral college: Art. II of the Constitution Made up of 538 electors who cast votes to decide the president (435 representatives, 100 senators, and 3 electors of the District of Columbia). The number of electors in each state is equal to its number of senators & representatives. The candidate who receives a majority of electoral votes wins (270). If no candidate wins a majority, the House chooses the president & the Senate chooses the vice president. Arguments for electoral college • Candidates need to secure electoral support in battleground states around the country, not just in areas with dense populations. • Eliminating the Electoral College would reduce the role of states: a popular vote system would privilege, for example, Los Angeles over Oklahoma. Arguments against it: • The people do not directly elect the president: the person who wins the popular vote can lose the Electoral College. • In 9% of US elections (5/58), the candidate who won the popular vote lost the election (1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, 2016). • Electors have the legal right to ignore the popular vote in many states. • Presidential candidates ignore a large part of the country: they focus mostly on swing/battleground states. • The Electoral College can depress voter turnout if the result in a state is obvious. * When a state is heavily partisan (e.g., strongly Democratic or strongly Republican), voters might feel their individual votes won't make a difference in the outcome. Ex. California clearly blue. Amending the Electoral College: • A constitutional amendment of the Electoral College would require a two-thirds majority in each chamber of Congress & the approval of three-fourths of the states. • Another possibility would be for all 50 states to enact state laws requiring electors to respect the popular vote. The Electoral College & the Presidential Election of 2000 • The election result was too close to call. Florida was the decisive state: no candidate had yet reached 270 electoral votes. • Most major TV networks announced Gore as the winner, then retracted. • The preliminary result was that Bush Jr. won Florida by 537 votes (out of about 6 million cast). Since it was so close, Gore demanded a hand recount to ensure that the result was correct. • It became evident that some votes had not been counted, and some had been counted for the wrong candidate. This put the credibility of the American electoral counting system under the spotlight. • Bush appealed the decision to the federal court system, claiming that Florida’s hand recount system was too arbitrary: he asked for it to be halted. • The federal District Court & Court of Appeals rejected Bush’s request, so Bush appealed this to the US Supreme Court. It decided to hear the case and ruled that the hand recount should be halted because it was too arbitrary and would take too long. • The decision was 5-4—five conservative judges voted in favour of Bush, and 4 liberal judges voted in favour of Gore. Bush Jr. won the election (271 electoral votes); Gore (266) had to accept the Supreme Court decision. The Electoral College & the Presidential Election of 2016: • Trump won 306 electoral votes; Hillary won 232. • Trump won 30 states; Hillary won 20 states + DC. • Hillary won 2.9 million more votes than Trump (the largest margin ever for a losing candidate). Swing voters: “Voters who are neither reliably Republican nor reliably Democratic who are pursued by each party during an election, as they can determine which candidate wins”. They tend to be about 15% of the electorate. Swing/Battleground States: “States that are not clearly pro-Republican or pro-Democrat and therefore are of vital interest to presidential candidates, as they can determine election outcomes”. The difference between victory and defeat. Candidates will not campaign or spend much effort in states they know they cannot win or will win for sure. Nearly 90% of campaign trips by presidential candidates are to battleground states. • In 2024, 7 states were considered to be swing states (Arizona, Nevada, Georgia, Michigan, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin). Therefore, only 1/7 of the US’s population is the focus of presidential candidates: this fact depresses voter turnout in states with obvious outcomes. Presidential Campaigns: • George Washington was an independent who did not believe in presidential campaigns. In 1789, he was unanimously voted to be president by a group of elite electors. After that, he went to NYC, the nation’s capital at the time, to take his oath of office. • In the 1830s, presidents began to travel & campaign actively • Today, campaigns are long and expensive; many candidates run for the presidency (this did not used to be the case). • For example, 16 Democrats ran for the party’s nomination in 2020 Incumbent Presidents: • There have been 47 presidents • 74% of incumbents have been reelected • 10 ran but were not re-elected (Adams, Quincy Adams, Van Buren, Cleveland, Harrison, Taft, Hoover, Carter, Bush Sr., Trump) • 7 incumbents chose not to run for re-election (Polk, Buchanan, Hayes, Coolidge, Truman, LBJ, Biden) • Grover Cleveland and Donald Trump are the only presidents to serve two non-consecutive terms Televised Presidential Debates: • The first televised debate took place in 1960 between Kennedy & Nixon • Today, presidential debates are organized by the nonpartisan, non-profit Commission on Presidential Debates: determines the location & sets the rules. • 67 million people watched the Trump-Harris debate in 2024 • 2020 voter turnout: 67% (158 million people out of 240 million eligible voters) Presidential Campaign Financing: • Hard money refers to contributions regulated by the Federal Election Committee (FEC). It limits the amount of individual contributions made directly to presidential candidates/national committees. It does not allow corporations or labour unions to donate money directly to candidates/ national committees • Corporations and unions can set up PACs (Political Action Committees): (separate segregated funds) pools of money that seek to support a presidential candidate. They do not do this in their name: they do it indirectly through management, employees, or shareholders. The PAC must be registered with the Federal Election Committee & the FEC limits the amount each PAC can contribute. • Citizens United v. the FEC (2010) gives corporations and unions First Amendment rights. This allows for the creation of Super PACs (soft money). Super PACs: “Independent groups that can raise unlimited amounts of money from individuals, labour unions, and corporations and can spend it to support or oppose political candidates but cannot coordinate directly with candidates or political parties”. • Rich individuals and corporations (mega-donors) have far more influence since 2010. • $16 billion has been spent on the 2024 federal elections • The candidate with the most personal wealth & mega-donors has an advantage in the presidential race. Congressional Elections: Incumbency: holding of an office or the period during which one is held. • In 2018, 90% of House incumbents & 83% of Senate incumbents won reelection. Incumbents attract substantial funding (*proven track record). • Vanishing marginals: “Trend marking the decline of competitive congressional elections”. *The term "vanishing marginals" refers to the decline in competitive congressional elections, where the margin of victory between candidates is small. • Congressional districts have become heavily Democratic or Republican: this is because of gerrymandering (redrawing of district lines) & individuals generally choosing to live near people with similar values & political leanings. • Some critics of incumbency advantage have called for term limits. *Senators and representatives don’t have term limits. Topic 10: The News & Social Media Mass Media: “News sources, including newspaper, television, radio, and the Internet (social media) whose purpose is to provide a large audience with information about the nation and the world”. News Media: “Subset of the mass media that provides the news of the day, gathered and reported by journalists”. Today, news media are far more interactive with the average citizen than in past historical periods: article forums, sharing through social media… News media today is also much faster than in the past: for example, some Americans did not learn about Abraham Lincoln’s assassination for several days. Digital media, 24-hour news, and sharing information through social media help people find out about important events quickly. Freedom of the Press: “The independence of the news media from government”. This is necessary to keep the public critically informed. The role of the press is to act as a watchdog of democracy: should monitor government action & increase accountability. Three Tasks of the Media: • Informing: journalists provide information about topics of interest to the public. • Investigating: journalists make news by researching & revealing information about controversial events (for example, the Watergate scandal). • Interpreting: prioritizing what news is important and providing more analysis than description. Slander & Libel: • Slander: saying something false that defames one’s character. • Libel: writing something false that defames one’s character. These are considered a tort: a civil wrong subject to a potential lawsuit. Courts must decide if the person who said/wrote the information was merely expressing a view or actively trying to ruin someone’s reputation through lies. Actual Malice: “Supreme Court test for libel of a public figure, in which the plaintiff must prove that the publisher knew the material was false or acted with reckless disregard of whether it was true or false”. Established by NY Times v. Sullivan, 1964 Prior to libel laws, the defamed person & the defamer often settled their disputes with a pistol duel. Ex. This is how Vice President Aaron Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in 1804. The Founding Era, 1750-1790: Newspapers were popular among the literate. Their influence was enhanced by oral readings in town squares & taverns. Newspapers took sides during the Revolutionary War: some backed the Patriots; others supported the British Crown. Virginia Gazette, Massachusetts Spy … Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (1775-6): a pamphlet attacking King George III: sold 150,000 copies (2.5 million people in the colonies at the time). This was well above the average circulation of political pamphlets, which was 2,000. Federalist Papers vs. Anti-Federalist Papers: another example of political struggle to influence public opinion through the press. The Partisan Era, 1790-1900: Political parties funded newspapers & used them as an outlet for their ideas. The government passed the 1798 Sedition Act because of the fear that the press would undermine its foreign policy objectives. Made it illegal to publish “false, scandalous, and malicious writing” about Congress or the president. In 1830, the penny press began: “Newspapers sold for a penny, initiating an era in which the press began to rely on circulation and advertising for income and not on political parties”. Yellow journalism: “Style of journalism in the late-nineteenth century characterized by sensationalism intended to capture readers’ attention and increase circulation”. In 1870, about 13% of newspapers were independent of political parties; in 1900, 50%. The Professional Era, 1900-1950: Mass circulation newspapers emerge. More emphasis on an independent press & objective reporting (more factual than opinionated). Muckraking: “Journalist practice of investigative reporting that seeks to uncover corruption and wrongdoing”. 1930s: Golden age of radio—politicians used broadcasts to inform citizens & shape their ideas. For example, FDR’s Fireside Chats. The Television Era, 1950-2000: • Television replaced radio as the most popular medium in American households. • Three major networks emerged: ABC, CBS & NBC. • Early 1950s: 10% of Americans had TVs; 1960: 90%. • Some news presenters became stars (W. Cronkite). • 1960: first presidential TV debate (JFK & Nixon). • Cable news from 1980 onward gave consumers more options for news (e.g., CNN and Fox). • As channels increased, TV audiences begin to fragment. Fragmentation: Readers/listeners/viewers have many TV options, making it more difficult for politicians to reach them. Whereas viewers used to watch news at specific hours (6pm, 11pm), with cable news, now they can be informed throughout the day. • 1990s-present: Internet, mobile phones, social media shape further fragmentation. The Current Era of Mass Media: • Sharp decline in print journalism readership. • Social media has become a common source of news and has profoundly changed how governments & citizens communicate, & how citizens communicate with one another. Pew Research Center: the majority of Americans say they receive their news “often” or “sometimes” from social media. Today, politicians reach voters through TV & social media. The latter has become much more significant since the Obama campaigns. When Trump was in office the first time, he had 89 million Twitter followers & used it to communicate & govern. Media Ideologies in the United States: • Left-leaning media: NPR, CNN, MSNBC, NYT, Guardian, Washington Post … • Far-left media: Jacobin, the Nation … • Conservative: Fox, Wall Street Journal, Financial Times … • Far-right media: Sean Hannity, Breitbart News, Newsmax, One America News. Mass Media: Four Mechanisms of Influence. • Reinforcement: The media mostly strengthens existing opinions. People consume media that supports their existing outlook. They tend to ignore information that counters their existing beliefs. • Agenda-setting: The media influences what we think & talk about. • Framing: The media encourages readers/listeners/viewers to interpret an issue in a particular way. • Priming: The media influences how we interpret events beyond a particular story. Topic 11: Interest Groups: Interest Groups: “A group of citizens who share a common political, religious, ideological, social or economic interest and try to influence public policy to benefit its members”. Objectives: • To inform: provide information about issues they care about to their members, the media, government, and the general public • To interpret: tell how policy developments will affect their missions and goals The Foundation of the American Republic and Interest Groups: • Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America. • Americans’ desire to form associations as a means of political participation helped make the country a successful democracy. • James Madison, Federalist Papers • Fearful of factions dividing young nation. G. Washington had the same fear. • But they could be useful for holding government accountable • The Founding Fathers believed that the opportunity to form groups was a fundamental right that the government could not take away. • Right of Association: enshrined in the First Amendment. Lobbying: “Trying to persuade elected officials to adopt or reject a specific policy change” Term coined over 300 years ago: those who sought favours from the British government would pace the halls of Parliament waiting for a chance to speak to members. This process was replicated in the US. Lobby groups: • Lobby groups exist at the local, state and national levels • There are around 12,000 in Washington DC: about 22 per member of the House and Senate. Located mostly on K Street in DC. Pathways to become a lobbyist: • Work experience in Congress, the executive branch, or a contributor to high-level political campaigns. *Problem with revolving doors: people moving from one branch of government to another and then to the private sector. Strategies: • Inside strategy: deal directly with members of congress. • PACs and SuperPACs donate and campaign to pressure politicians to achieve their objectives. Historical Examples of Lobby Groups: • American Anti-Slavery Society distributed pamphlets and collected signatures. • Suffragette movement: fought for right to vote for women. • Workers’ unions have challenged the power of large powerful companies. Examples of Lobby Groups today: • National Abortion Rights Action League: right to terminate pregnancy without limitations. • Right to Life: abortions should be forbidden except when the life of the mother is endangered. • American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC): public advocacy, member mobilization and campaign contributions to pressure Congress. Formed in 1950s; today has over 100,000 active members. Grassroots Movements: “Organized efforts to challenge specific political issues (such as the environmental and climate issues)” • For example, the American Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 60s. It aimed to pass Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act. Anti-Worker Lobby Groups: Government policies and business lobbies have often sought to undermine workers’ rights. *Anti-Worker Lobby Groups are organizations or interests that push for policies weakening workers' rights and union power. • Ex. 28 states have right to work laws that allow individuals to choose not to join a union even if their workplace has a designated union in place. *To weaken union power. Current worker Challenges: • At-will employment, automation, outsourcing, foreign competition, pro-business policies, sub-contracting, and economic change present challenges to workers. • Many workers feel left behind by public policies. Largest Pro-Worker Interest Groups in the US: • National Education Association (NEA): largest labor union in the United States: public school teachers, support personnel, and faculty and staff in higher education institutions. • Service Employees International Union (SEIU): represents workers in healthcare, public services, and janitorial services. It is known for its advocacy on behalf of low-wage workers. • American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME): represents public sector workers in government offices, schools, and hospitals. • International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT): Represents workers in trucking, package delivery, freight, warehouse, and logistics. Global Human Rights Lobby Groups: • NGOs: “Organizations independent of governments that monitor and improve political, economic and social conditions throughout the world”. • Amnesty; Human Rights Watch: campaign for social justice around the world. Interest group challenges: • Leadership accountability: avoid the Iron Law of Oligarchy: “Theory that leaders in any organization eventually behave in their own self-interest. The larger the organization, the greater the likelihood that the leader will behave this way”. • Membership stability: increasing membership and ensuring loyalty from previous members. • Free rider: why join if you can reap the benefits anyway? * People may choose not to join an interest group, yet still benefit from the group's efforts, such as policy changes or public goods (e.g., clean air, better labour laws). • Political and economic public policy changes that undermine their goals. Topic 12: Us Foreign Policy Legal immigration: • Jurisdiction: Department of Homeland Security (como ministro de interior en España); Department of Justice; Department of State. • 13.2M legal permanent residents: Latin America (mostly Mexico), followed by Asia and then Europe. • Department of State oversees visas; US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) oversee citizenship. There are student, worker, and family visas. • Legal residents received a green card. Once this occurs, five years of continuous residence, along with a citizenship and language test and pledge of allegiance, are required for naturalization. Asylum Seekers/ Refugees: The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1990 allows for an annual intake of refugees. This is normally between 60-100,000. Geneva Convention (UN) defines a refugee as: “someone who is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion”. Undocumented Immigration: • There are also about 12 million undocumented immigrants in the US. • Play an important role in the country’s economic development. • Low wages; no benefits; no fear of protest. • Many Democrats defend an amnesty and a path to citizenship. Most Republicans advocate for stronger border control, no amnesty, and no pathway to citizenship. • Most Democrats support the Dream Act: allow children who entered country illegally with parents to have a path to citizenship. Must be over 16, have 5 years of residence, a high school degree, and no criminal record. • Republicans’ position has changed over time: Reagan passed the 1986 Reform and Control Act. Amnesty for 2.8 million undocumented immigrants. • Trump: wall; more restrictive entry policy; mass deportation: important issue for Republican voters. US Foreign Policy: • George Washington warned against entanglements with foreign countries • Territorial expansion: 1803 Louisiana Purchase. • War of 1812 vs Britain. • 1823 Monroe Doctrine: exercise hegemony over Latin America (to prevent European imperialism in the Americas). *Key points: European non-intervention in the Americans, non-interference by the U.S. • 1846-8: Mexican-American War. US gains control of New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, Texas, and western Colorado. • 1867: US purchases Alaska from Russia. • 1898: Spanish American War: US gains control of Cuba, the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico; also annexes Hawaii. • 1903-1914: Panama Canal: connects Pacific and Atlantic. • 1917: US enters WWI after sinking of Lusitania and Zimmerman Note. • 1920: League of Nations: *an international organization established after WWI to promote peace and prevent future conflicts. • 1941: US enters WWII after Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor. • 1945: US joins UN (United Nations); Cold War begins • 1945-1991: Cold War • Proxy wars around the globe, including Korea, Vietnam, and Cuba • 1990-1: First Iraq War • 2001-2021: War in Afghanistan • 2003-2011: Second Iraq War • Current: tension with China; War in Ukraine • Congress has declared war 11 times historically • US has sent troops more than 280 times • President is Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces: powerful executive in times of war. Depends on Secretary of Defense; National Security Advisor; CIA. Congress approves/denies funding • Military budget: 754 billion USD/year. Largest globally (China and India spend about 250 billion USD/year; Russia spends about 60 billion USD/year). • 750 military bases in 80 countries. Soft Power: • International development and humanitarian assistance. • World Bank and IMF play important role. • Peace Corps has sent 240,000 volunteers to 76 countries since 1961: teaching, agriculture, medicine, environmental conservation… • Cultural globalization is also important: American products abroad. Hard Power: Military Industrial Complex: “Network of companies, lobbyists, government officials, and military leaders who collectively influence defence spending, procurement decisions, and national security policies”. • Eisenhower warned about the influence of the military-industrial complex in his farewell address in 1961. He cautioned against the potential dangers of the military-industrial sector and its influence on government policy and public spending. • The military-industrial complex includes a wide range of industries involved in defence production, including aerospace, shipbuilding, electronics, communications, and munitions. • Defense contractors, such as Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Raytheon, Northrop Grumman, and General Dynamics. US & EU Relations: • Trump celebrated Brexit. Called the EU “a foe”, “worse than China, just smaller”. • Biden: “Europe is the cornerstone of our engagement with the rest of the world and is the catalyst for our global cooperation”. • Trump embraces Victor Orbán • In Trump’s first term, he imposed steel and aluminium imports on European imports. He will likely impose more tariffs in his second term. He plans to pull out of the Paris Climate Agreement. • Will he undermine or leave NATO? US & Russia Relations: • Trump claimed he would solve the Russia-Ukraine crisis within 24 hours of assuming the presidency: Is Putin interested in negotiating? • What might a solution look like? Potentially a Korea-type settlement: Russia gains some Ukrainian land, including Crimea; a demilitarized zone between the two countries. • Would Ukraine join the EU? • Would it join NATO or promise neutrality? US & China Relations: • Trump started trade war in 2018, imposing tariffs of up to 25% on some Chinese goods. • Biden has added additional tariffs. • Driven by nationalism. • Aims to bring manufacturing jobs back to the US. • In 2024, Trump has promised tariffs on most imported goods coming into the US: “America First” doctrine. • He has said that he will impose 60% or higher tariffs on Chinese imports. • In his first term, Trump increased naval presence in the South China Sea. • He was ambiguous about whether he would support Taiwan, claiming it should pay the US for protection.